| Supported Precious-Metal Oxidation Catalyst |
High-surface-area alumina or silica-alumina support; aqueous metal salt or complex solution; deionized water; pH-adjusting agents.
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0.1–5 wt% active metal on porous pellets, spheres, or extrudates; optional promoters and binder.
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Incipient-wetness impregnation or deposition–precipitation, followed by drying, calcination, and controlled activation.
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Approximately 0.5–5 metric tonnes per batch for shaped products; continuous coating lines can process higher annual volumes.
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Drying: 80–150°C; calcination: 300–600°C; activation atmosphere selected according to metal chemistry.
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90–98% |
Non-uniform active-metal distribution, channel blockage, solvent recovery, and loss of expensive metal during washing or filtration.
|
High |
| Nickel-Based Reforming Catalyst |
Nickel salts; alumina, magnesia, or calcium aluminate support; water; pore-forming additives; inorganic binders.
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Typically 5–25 wt% nickel oxide equivalent in pellets, rings, or extrudates; stabilized against sintering.
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Kneading or dry mixing, extrusion, cutting, drying, calcination, and pre-reduction or passivation where required.
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Approximately 1–20 metric tonnes per batch, depending on pellet diameter and extrusion capacity.
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Drying: 100–180°C; calcination: 500–850°C; reduction commonly performed above 400°C under hydrogen-containing gas.
|
92–98% |
Heat-transfer gradients, extrusion-moisture control, nickel migration, dust generation, and safe management of reduced material.
|
High |
| Hydrotreating Sulfide Catalyst |
Alumina or alumina-silica support; molybdenum and nickel or cobalt precursor solutions; chelating agents; water.
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Multi-metal oxide precursor on porous extrudates, later converted to sulfide form before or during catalyst activation.
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Pore-volume impregnation, controlled drying, calcination, shaping, and sulfiding or customer-site activation.
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Approximately 2–20 metric tonnes per batch for shaped catalyst production.
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Drying: 90–160°C; calcination: 350–550°C; sulfiding commonly occurs at approximately 200–400°C.
|
88–97% |
Precise pore-volume matching, multi-metal loading uniformity, sulfur-containing emissions, and activation safety.
|
High |
| Zeolite-Based Catalytic Material |
Silica and alumina sources; sodium or other alkali source; water; organic structure-directing agent where required; seed crystals.
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Crystalline microporous or hierarchical zeolite powder, often exchanged with ammonium or metal ions and formed with a binder.
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Hydrothermal crystallization, filtration, washing, ion exchange, drying, calcination, and spray drying or extrusion.
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Approximately 1–50 metric tonnes per batch; crystallization vessel size and heat removal are major constraints.
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Hydrothermal synthesis: commonly 120–200°C; calcination: 450–650°C.
|
80–95% |
Crystal-size distribution, mixing and heat-transfer limitations, mother-liquor treatment, and recovery or replacement of organic templates.
|
High |
| Fluid-Catalytic-Cracking Catalyst |
Zeolite powder; kaolin or other clay; alumina sol; silica sol; water; rare-earth or other ion-exchange solutions where specified.
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Spray-dried microspheres containing zeolite, matrix, binder, and pore-volume modifiers; particle size is engineered for fluidization.
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Slurry preparation, high-shear dispersion, spray drying, calcination, ion exchange, washing, and final classification.
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Continuous spray-drying lines commonly operate at tens to hundreds of tonnes per day.
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Spray-dryer outlet temperatures commonly range from 100–200°C; calcination commonly ranges from 500–750°C.
|
85–97% |
Slurry rheology, nozzle wear, microsphere attrition, particle-size control, wastewater load, and energy consumption.
|
High |
| Automotive Emission-Control Monolith |
Cordierite or metallic honeycomb substrate; alumina washcoat; oxygen-storage oxide; precious-metal precursor solution; stabilizers.
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High-cell-density honeycomb coated with a porous washcoat and low-loading active metals; multiple coating layers may be used.
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Substrate dipping or metered coating, air removal, drying, calcination, inspection, and canning or module assembly.
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Continuous lines can process thousands to tens of thousands of substrates per day, depending on substrate dimensions.
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Drying: 80–180°C; washcoat calcination: approximately 400–700°C.
|
90–99% |
Washcoat uniformity, pressure-drop control, corner cracking, thermal shock, active-metal loss, and dimensional tolerances.
|
High |
| Selective Catalytic Reduction Catalyst |
Titanium dioxide or zeolitic support; transition-metal precursor; alumina or silica binder; deionized water; pore-forming additives.
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Extruded honeycomb or coated substrate with active metal in oxide or exchanged form; pore structure is optimized for gas diffusion.
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Wet mixing, extrusion or washcoating, controlled drying, calcination, cutting, and dimensional inspection.
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Approximately 1–20 metric tonnes per batch for extruded products; larger projects use multiple parallel lines.
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Drying: 80–180°C; calcination: 400–650°C.
|
90–98% |
Extrusion pressure, honeycomb cracking, active-phase dispersion, ammonia-slip performance, and full-length channel uniformity.
|
High |
| Structured Metal or Ceramic Catalyst |
Stainless steel, aluminum, or ceramic substrate; alumina or silica washcoat; active-metal precursor; adhesive or surface-treatment chemistry.
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Coated foams, meshes, corrugated sheets, or honeycombs designed for low pressure drop and enhanced mass transfer.
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Surface pretreatment, dip coating or spray coating, drying, calcination, and mechanical or thermal durability testing.
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Pilot lines commonly process 10–500 square metres of substrate per day; industrial capacity depends on geometry.
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Drying: 80–180°C; calcination: 300–700°C, subject to substrate compatibility.
|
75–95% |
Coating adhesion, edge effects, blockage of open channels, thermal expansion mismatch, and scale-dependent pressure drop.
|
Medium–High |
| Electrocatalyst Powder for Hydrogen Systems |
Carbon or metal-oxide support; platinum-group or transition-metal precursor; reducing agent; water or alcohol-based solvent; ionomer where applicable.
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Nanoparticles dispersed on a conductive support, typically formulated into catalyst ink for electrode or membrane-electrode assembly production.
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Wet chemical reduction, colloidal synthesis, deposition, filtration or spray drying, milling, ink formulation, and roll-to-roll coating.
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Powder production commonly ranges from kilograms to several tonnes per batch; electrode coating is typically continuous.
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Drying: 60–150°C; thermal treatment commonly ranges from 150–500°C, depending on support and active phase.
|
80–95% |
Nanoparticle agglomeration, metal utilization, solvent recovery, contamination control, ink rheology, and coating uniformity.
|
Medium–High |
| Perovskite or Mixed-Metal-Oxide Catalyst |
Nitrate, acetate, carbonate, or oxide precursors of selected transition metals; water or alcohol solvent; chelating agent; pore former.
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Bulk oxide, porous powder, supported phase, or structured coating with controlled elemental ratios and oxygen mobility.
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Co-precipitation, sol-gel, combustion, spray pyrolysis, or solid-state synthesis followed by milling and calcination.
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Approximately 0.1–5 metric tonnes per batch for commercial development; larger scale depends strongly on precursor route.
|
Drying: 80–200°C; calcination commonly ranges from 600–1,000°C.
|
70–92% |
Stoichiometric drift, agglomeration, high thermal energy demand, oxygen non-stoichiometry, and reproducibility between batches.
|
Emerging |
| Carbon-Supported Metal Nanocatalyst |
Activated carbon, carbon black, or carbon nanostructure; metal salt or organometallic precursor; water or organic solvent; reducing agent.
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1–60 wt% metal nanoparticles deposited on a high-surface-area carbon support, supplied as powder or wet cake.
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Impregnation, adsorption, colloidal deposition, chemical reduction, filtration, drying, and optional mild thermal treatment.
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Approximately 10 kg–2 metric tonnes per batch, with scale-up constrained by mixing and filtration performance.
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Drying: 60–150°C; optional thermal treatment commonly ranges from 150–500°C.
|
80–96% |
Nanoparticle size distribution, dust and static control, filtration time, metal recovery, and batch-to-batch dispersion consistency.
|
Medium–High |
